Theories of Intelligence

Theories of Intelligence People are different. Some think faster than others, some learn faster than others. Some are naturally good at art, others are naturally good at math. Some people have a hard time in social situations, and some breeze through them. What causes people to be so different? Intelligence. Intelligence determines a persons potential and how well they are able to learn. However, intelligence is not definitive and simple as there are many factors that make intelligence a complex concept. If the line is blurred between what is and what is not intelligence, how was intelligence initially defined? Intelligence has been theorized, tested, and investigated for a long time. Theories have been made in order to define intelligence. Three prominent theorists have contributed to what the modern world knows today as intelligence. A British psychologist, Charles Spearman theorized that the definition of intelligence among society has a common factor known as general intelligence, also referred to as g, which represents the potential to be rationalize and resolve issues. The other factors of intelligence are known specific factors, which are also referred to as s. Spearman claimed that ones proficiency in a given subject correlates to that of similar subjects (Rathus), yet not a single person is good at everything, and it is no ones fault; the fault lies with the way the mind works. Louis Thurstone was another psychologist who theorized that there were eight separate factors that make up intelligence: visual and spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical anility, verbal meaning, memory, word fluency, deductive reasoning, and inductive reasoning. Each factor pertained to a certain factor. For example, visual and spatial ability pertains to the ability to conceptualize information, but the verbal meaning factor pertains to the ability to recall words and phrases. Similar to Spearmans theory, Thurstones theory claims a person can be naturally competent in one factor, but significantly less competent in another. (Rathus 210). The last theory originated from Howard Gardener, a recent psychologist who claimed not that there are multiple factors of intelligence, but that intelligence wide foundation with several branches of intelligence. Gardner claimed that the different kinds of intelligence are linguistic, logical-mathematics, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligence. Gardener believes social intelligence is as important as academic intelligence. For example, a person could excel in social skills, but not in school. Throughout history, psychologists have formed theories in order to explain what intelligence and how it works. Intelligence plays a part in everyday life. The human ability to function in social situations and learn in academic situations encompasses the general idea what life on earth is. In order to define and categorize intelligence, intelligence tests have been made. According the Encyclopedia of Mind Disorders intelligence tests examine the psychology of a person and evaluate his mentality (Mind Disorders). There four tests that are used most commonly are Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Wechsler-Adult Intelligence Scale, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, and Wechsler Primary Preschool Scale of Intelligence, which consist of trials of mathematics, verbal tests, and motor skills. There are advantages and disadvantages to using intelligence tests. The advantages include that testing uniformly measures the capability of a person and can identify gifts within him, opening greater opportunities, as well identities certain learning disabilities in a person, preventing damage to per sist, while the drawbacks include that the tests normally give specific quantities that describe the functionality of a person, but intelligence itself is complex and a one dimensional number does not sufficiently determine a persons intelligence. Another disadvantage of intelligence tests is that the components of one intelligence test can also differ from the components of another intelligence test, altering his measure of intelligence. A common scale used in determining the intelligence of a person within the use of intelligence tests is the intelligence quotient, which is also known as IQ. (Mind Disorders). The average IQ is 100; a person with an IQ lower than 70 to 75 is considered intellectually disabled (WebMD). The bell curve made from IQ tests are able to categorize people from intellectually disabled to genius. In order to try and measure intelligence, tests have been made to investigate and to further advance the unanswered field. Humans are not perfect; there is an incredible variety of different kinds of hindrances that affect the everyday life of all different kinds of people. One type of hindrance that can hold back a person is their ability to learn, or learning disabilities, which can be qualified by below-average intelligence and a lack of ability to perform everyday skills (WebMD). Intellectual functioning pertains to IQ, the ability to learn, rationalize, solve problems, and make decisions. Adaptive behaviors pertain to social intelligence and motor skills. Signs of learning disability include late development of motor skills, late development of communication skills, slower development of everyday skills, difficulty with recalling past event, behavior problems, and difficulty with logical thinking (WebMD). Learning disabilities are determined by degrees of severity ranging from mild to profound. For mild learning disabilities which affects minor academic learning or smaller cognitive abilities such a s short-term memory and mental flexibility. Learning disabilities do not necessarily limit the number of abilities a person can have, but prolong the amount of time it takes a person to learn them. The limitations brought on by learning disabilities include intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviors. The next degree of severity is called moderate; moderate learning disabilities causes a person to lag behind the rest of his peers academically as well as require assistance for everyday life. The third degree of severity is severe learning disability, which causes a person to have a minimal conceptual understanding and require a caretaker. Finally, the last degree of severity is called profound learning disability, which causes a person to solely rely on the physical world to generate conceptual skills (Association). There are a number of causes that can cause learning disabilities as well. These causes range from genetic conditions to problems during pregnancy and childbirth. Genetic conditions that cause learning disabilities include disorders such as Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and autism.ÂÂ   Injuries such as brain infections and severe head injuries and illnesses such as meningitis and the measles can also cause learning disabilities. Consumption of alcohol or drug use during pregnancy can cause causing fetal alcohol syndrome and malnutrition (WebMD). For situations like pregnancy, learning disabilities and disorders can be prevented. For example, pregnant woman should refrain from drinking alcohol and consider ultrasounds and amniocentesis to identify the potential problem early (WebMD). Intelligence has been theorized, tested, and investigated for a long time. These theories, tests, and investigations have created a better understand of what intelligence is, at least to an extent. Intelligence is hard to define; it is not only the good grades one receives in school, it is also how one functions in everyday life and in social situations. References American Psychological Assocation. n.d. Web. 2 12 2016. Association, American Psychiatric. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publshing, 2013. Print. Mind Disorders. n.d. Web. 03 12 2016. Rathus, Spencer A. Psychology: Principles in Practice. Austin: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 2003. 209. Textbook. WebMD. n.d. Web. 3 12 2016.

Essay --

For an organisation to be at its best it requires the best. Traditionally, 'hard skills' e.g. ones education were the decisive factors in employment decisions while â€Å"softer aspects† e.g. their character or personality, were seen as irrelevant. Guion and Gottier (1965) concluded: " it is difficult to advocate, with a clear conscience, the use of personality measures in most situations as a basis for making employment decisions" (p. 106) with others concluding similarly (Schmitt, Gooding, Noe, & Kirsch, 1984; Hough, Eaton, Dunnette, Kamp & McCoy, 1990). Personality itself can be seen as stable, inner, personal dispositions that determine relatively consistent patterns of behaviour (including feelings and thoughts) across different situations (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2007). Therefore personality traits are what makes a person’s behaviour consistent and unique in certain situations. Research into management derailment, absenteeism and stress all point to personality as a mediating factor of job performance (Hogan, Hogan & Kaiser, 2010; Vlasveld et al , 2012) and thus is a necessary consideration all organisational dimensions. With the importance of personality established, the inventories of measuring these traits need to be of equal significance. It is now possible to assess personality in a way that is meaningful for the world of work and for employers and managers to use. The use of psychometric tests such as SHL's OPQ 32 are invaluable in helping predict potential or current employees organisational behaviours along with job performance (Mount et al, 2000; Judge et al 2002). This essay will evaluate the role of personality in the workplace and highlight its importance. I shall start by looking at the concept of personality before ... ... case that personality can have an important role in organisations. While the predictive power of personality measures are lower and applied more specifically than ability tests, the right tests in the right contexts, can help in prediction of future occupational success. Conscientiousness, one of the main fac ¬tors of personality, has general and positive effects on work-related criteria and with Neuroticism seems to be seemingly stable in the general outcome behaviours. While the validity and reliability of such results are often questioned, their importance lies in the extent to which results are used. Using results to help formulate hypotheses rather than making decisions allows for slightly lower validities. If such practices are followed at the very least it seems reasonable to conclude that indeed personality can predict a variety of organisational behaviours.

How the American Legal System and Business is impacted

1. Introduction This paper seeks to examine the economical effect, if any, upon what the legal system requires of business in America, from a sole proprietor, to a corporation. The paper will also have to look at the costs imposed on operating a business for obtaining a business license, advertising, filing fees paid to the State, and all such costs and within a State, City, and County. 2. Analysis and Discussion The conduct of any business in any part of the world is regulated by the government and therefore business activities are governed by laws locally and on the state level. As to why the government impost cost to conducting business is based on basically two state powers, which are the police power (Lee, 1973) and the power of taxation.   In regulating the business entities and the latter are activities, the government has the best of intentions of promoting public welfare. Hence, under the local level of government, there can be imposed local permits fees and license fees that must be paid by business operators whenever these entities are sole proprietorship, partnership or corporations are to start in operating their business.     Ã‚  Since these fees are being imposes to recover the cost of government in allowing the conduct of business, such power of the state from local to national is being imposed by the exercise of police power of the state by the local level government. Being therefore cost of regulation, the amount of cost is rather fixed and rates may be more or less the same for the group of similar type of business industry. Still pursuant to the police power of the state, the government enforces the laws of business and administers justice where business entities complain of violations of commercial laws. To illustrate the point, business entities enter into contracts and in certain cases it could happen there could refusal to comply with the obligations created out of contracts.   The parties cannot put the law into their hands, thus there must be a court systems that must settle the issues between the parties.   One may therefore clearly see the relevance of the legal system which is part of doing business.   Since legal system entails services rendered by government, it should not be a surprise when government courts require the payment of filing fees as cost of pursuing justice on the part of business entities. But since government does not only interfere from the local level but also at state level, another form of charges are imposed under the state’s power of taxation.   Since the power of taxation (Goode, 1951) involves the revenue generating power of the government, the government may impose several forms of taxes such as income taxes and value added tax. Income tax (Goode; 1976; Smith, et. al, 1958) is a tax based on the financial earning capacity of the business entities, which may include sole proprietorship, partnership and corporation. Under this kind of taxation, the state is charging taxes on the basis of an assumed obligation of the taxpayer-entities to the state in return for the service given by the state to the business entities in the form of security and protection and other services by reason for its being a government that needs funds to defray its expenses. Another form of taxation which may also be imposed by the local levels of government if provided in their city charters, are the business taxation. This may take the form of sales tax or the more familiar business taxes. As distinguish from income taxation, business taxation, charges the taxpayer for having been given the privilege of operating a business. Such kind of taxes is normally based on the amount of gross receipts, or sales revenues as basis for output tax but subject to certain deductions for claims like input taxes to reduce the taxes payable to the government. Surely the effect of these charges economically could just be huge that could affect the operation of doing business. Since business entities operate under the idea of being profitable to be able to recover cost expended in business, the amount of taxes, charges and licenses should not be too prohibitive as to discourage business from doing business. This might be apparent for business taxes in the form of excise tax (Fossen, 2002) on cigarettes and wines or the so called ‘sin taxes’. This kind of taxes are also in the nature of excise taxes and therefore part of the business taxes like the sales tax or value added tax. It may be observed that the higher amount of taxes imposed on certain taxes like ‘sin taxes’ manifests the intention of the government to control the consumption of said good because these products may not be essentially be good to people because of health effects. To illustrate the point, the government prohibiting smoking in public place may have already prohibited TV advertising of the industry’ products because of the effect of the industry on public health only that the government cannot completely ban the sale of these products. Hence, being tied with its hands to limit production without violating the laws of commerce, the government resort to higher taxes to discourage consumption. 3. Conclusion It may be concluded that there are indeed effects of the legal system on how the business entities operates in a certain place.   To such the extent of these economic effects must be viewed in the context of the objective of governments in terms of its paramount purpose of encouraging entrepreneurship while ensuring compliance with laws that are conducive to protecting the life, health, employment and other need of its people. Since business entities could not be avoiding this government interference on business operations, they may just as well comply since these laws are also meant to protect them. Without regulation there could be chaos in society as privileges to operate business could be subject to abuse. Imposing charges to regulate is therefore justified in the exercise of the police power of the state. On the other hand, it is necessary to emphasize that governments also need to defray its expenses and the means to the attain the same is to impose several kind of taxes from business entities and individuals.   When viewed on a wider concept, business entities also need the government in terms of regulation and protection of its interest. Without the government administering the laws on commerce, business entities would be in dangerous situation since they would be operating as if they are playing basket ball without a referee who will tell them who is wrong and who is right in case one of the teams abuses its rights. If therefore the are no government to charge regulation cost and taxes, the law will just be useless because there would be no agent to implement the same. Hence, business entities are to accept the reality of these charges and taxes and factor them in computing profits. References: Fossen   (2002) Norfolk Island and Its Tax Haven; The Australian Journal of Politics and History, Vol. 48, 2002 Goode (1951) The Corporation Income Tax; Wiley Goode (1976) The Individual Income Tax; Brookings Institution Lee   (1973) A History of Regulatory Taxation; University Press of Kentucky, 1973 Smith, et. al (1958) Income Tax Differentials; Tax Institute of America

The Theory Of The Germ Theory - 1122 Words

The Germ Theory a) The first response of the germ theory was unfavorably look upon, most people thought that diseases a bad seeds in the air known as miasma. Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek made one of the earliest microscopes this lead to the discovery of micro-organisms which he called animalcules. Joseph Lister developed the microscope in 1830. Louis Pasteur put forward the germ theory in 1861 this consisted of micro-organisms cause decaying matter. Pasteur never showed the link between bacteria and human disease. Robert Koch further developed Pasteur’s theory. Koch succeeded in what Pasteur did by linking one microbe with a disease. The first disease Koch worked on was anthrax, which Davaine had also worked on. Davaine found that in you inject a health animal with a small dose of the disease they won’t contract the disease. But Koch was able to further his research on the disease and its life cycle. 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